1952 AD to 1970 AD
FIRST INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
individually packaged transistors were much smaller than their predecessors, vacuum tubes, but the designers wanted todabia smaller electronic devices. Which increased the demand for miniaturization and motorized research in this direction was the development of American space research program (American Space Program).
Fatras some time engineers and scientists had been thinking it would be a good idea to have available to make the entire circuit in n single piece of semiconductor.
The first public discussion about this idea is due to an English expert in radar called GWA Summer, by a letter published in 1952. Anyway it was not until the summer of 1958, Mr. Jack Kilby, working for Texas Instruments, progress in the manufacture of multiple components in a single piece of semiconductor. Kilby's first prototype was a phase oscillator, although manufacturing techniques subsequently took different paths to those taken by Kilby, he is still taking the credit for having created the first real integrated circuit.
In 1963, Fairchild manufactures a device called the 907 that contained two logic gates, which consisted in four bipolar transistors and four resistors. The 907 also use insulating layers and internal structures, which are common features in modern integrated circuits.
In 1967, Fairchild introduced a device called the micromosaico, which contained several hundred transistors. The main characteristic of transistors micromosaico was that they were not interconnected. A designer using a computer program to specify the anointing may be required that the device performs, and the program determined the necessary interconnections of transistors and built the photomasks required to complete the device. The micromosaico is accredited as a pointer to the application specific integrated circuits, as well as the first real application device added to the design of computers.
In 1970, Fairchild introduced the irst RAM (Random Access Memory) 256-bit static call 4100, while Intel auncia the first 1024-bit dynamic RAM called 1103, in the same year.
1971 AD to 1976 AD
With the benefits of the use of integrated circuits appears adnienimiento of microprocessors. This was evident by itself for many reasons, among which are the large size they had computers, their high price, and the tedious and difficult than was the use.
Because computers were very large and so expensive, only large institutions could buy them and were only used for interim and complicated computational tasks, which explains why computers lime at that time were few and separated by distances abysmal, and reduced to an elite and exclusive group of people who could use them and know how are you working.
Because the technology of integrated circuits was in childhood or infancy and todabia was not possible to build thousands of transistors on a single integrated circuit until the late 60's to mid 70's, computers were immersed in n Letard until they appeared and he developed the different scales of integration.
scales of integration of integrated circuits appeared and were developed in the following sequence according to the density of integration they possessed:
1) - appeared the circuits SSI (Small Scale Integration). These circuits are low level of integration, which only contain a maximum of 10 gates logical or 100 transistors and include the time of investigation of the IC's.
2) - Circuits appear MSI (Medium Scale Integration). These are medium-scale circuit integration, which contain between 10 and 100 logic gates or transistors 100 to 1000 and most commercially used.
3) - The introduction of LSI (Large Scale Integration). They contain between 100 and 1000 logic gates or transistors 1000 to 10000 which slightly expanded the range of use of IC's.
4) - appear Circuits VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration). Which contain more than 1000 logic gates and more than 10000 transistors, which appear to consolidate the industry of IC's and to move definitely the technology of individual components and kicking off the era of miniaturization of equipment appearing and becoming most common time of manufacture and use of portable computers.
The different needs in the use of IC's led to different logic families that met the specifications of power, voltage and current of the circuits that are designed today. For these reasons and more appeared different logic families, which listed in the following list:
a. Family RTL (Resistor Logic)
b. Family DTL (diode and transistor Logic)
c. Family TTL (transistor logic and transistors)
d. Family Schottky TTL (transistor transistor logic and Schottky)
e. TTL Series 7400/5400
f. Family IGFET or ENHANCEMENT: EMOSFET enhancing effect (logic field effect transistors complementary metal oxide)
g. 74C/54C CMOS Series
h. Family ECL (EMITTER COUPLED LOGIC)
i. Logic gate three states (TRI STATE LOGIC GATE)
j. Coupling between gates (INTERFACE)
k. Open collector TTL logic (OPEN COLLECTOR TTL)
l. Transmission gate (BILATERAL SWITCH)
Integrated Circuit
An integrated circuit (IC) or chip, is a very thin tablet found in a huge amount (of the order of thousands or millions) of interconnected microelectronic devices, diodes and transistors mainly, in addition to passive components such as resistors or capacitors. Its area is small, the order of one cm ² or less.
ADVANCES IN INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
advances that made possible the integrated circuit have been mainly the developments in the manufacture of semiconductor devices in the mid-twentieth century experimental findings showed that these devices could replace the functions valves or vacuum tubes, which quickly became obsolete because they can not compete with the small size, moderate power consumption, minimum switching times, reliability, mass production capability and versatility of the CI.
Among the circuits are most advanced integrated microprocessors that control everything from computers to cell phones and microwave ovens. The digital memory chips are another family of integrated circuits that are crucial for modern information society. While the cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread among millions of production units the individual cost of the ICs is usually minimized. The efficiency of ICs is high because the small size of the chips allows short connections that allow the use of low power logic (such as CMOS) switching at high speeds.
Over the years, the CIs are constantly migrating to smaller sizes with better features, allowing more circuits are packed into each chip. While the size is compressed, practically everything is better (the cost and reduce power consumption and speed increases). While these gains are apparent for the end user, there is fierce competition among manufacturers to use increasingly thin geometries. This process, and the expected process in the coming years, is well described by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, or ITRS.
Popularity of ICs
Only half a century has elapsed since the beginning of its development and integrated circuits have become almost ubiquitous. Computers, mobile phones and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of modern societies. Computing, communications, manufacturing and transportation systems, including Internet, all depend on the existence of integrated circuits. In fact, many scholars think that the digital revolution caused by integrated circuits is one of the most significant events the history of mankind.
Types
There are three types of integrated circuits:
• Monolithic Circuits: They are made of a single crystal, usually silicon, but also exist in germanium, gallium arsenide, silicon germanium, etc..
• Thin-film hybrid circuits, are very similar to monolithic circuits, but they also contain difficult to manufacture components with monolithic technology. Many A / D and D / A converters were manufactured in hybrid technology until the technology allowed progress in making precise resistors.
• thick-film hybrid circuits, are away enough of the monolithic circuits. In fact monolithic circuits usually contain no capsule (say), transistors, diodes, etc, on a dielectric substrate, interconnected with conductive tracks. The resistors are deposited by screen printing and making them fit laser cuts. All this is wrapped in both plastic and metal caps, depending on the power dissipation required. In many cases, the capsule is not "shaped", but simply is an epoxy that protects the circuit. In the market are hybrid circuits for RF modules, power supplies, automotive ignition circuits, etc.. Classification
Considering the level of integration - the number of components - integrated circuits are classified as:
• SSI (Small Scale Integration) micro-level: less than 12
• MSI (Medium Scale Integration) medium: 12 to 99
• LSI (Large Scale Integration) large: 100 to 9999
• VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) large: 10 000 to 99 999
• ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) Ultra-large: greater than or equal to 100000
regard to the functions integrated circuits are classified into two main groups:
• analog integrated circuits: You can record from encapsulated transistors simple together without marriage between them, until complete devices as amplifiers, oscillators or complete radio receivers.
• Digital integrated circuits: They range from basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) to more complex microprocessors.
They are designed and manufactured to perform a specific function within a system. In general, the manufacture of CI is complex and that have a high integration of components into a small space so that they become microscopic. However, allow great simplifications over the old circuit, and a faster assembly.
Limitations of integrated circuits
There are certain physical and economic limits to the development of integrated circuits. Basically, there are barriers that are going away to improve the technology, but not unpark.
The main ones are:
1. Power dissipation, heat dissipation
electrical circuits dissipate power. When the number of components in a given volume grows, the demands on power dissipation is also grow, heating the substrate and degrading the device behavior. Moreover, in many cases is a regenerative behavior, so the higher the temperature, the heat produced, a phenomenon often called "thermal runaway" and, if not avoided, comes to destroy the device. Audio amplifiers and voltage regulators are prone to this phenomenon, which often incorporate "thermal protection."
power circuits are obviously the most energy must be dissipated. For this capsule contains metal parts in contact with the bottom of the chip, which serve thermal conductivity to transfer heat from the chip to the heatsink or the environment. The reduction of thermal resistance of this conduit, as well as the new capsules of silicone compounds, allowing greater dissipation with smaller capsules.
digital circuits solve the problem by reducing the supply voltage and using low power technologies such as CMOS. Yet the higher density circuits with high integration and speed, dissipation is one of the biggest problems, and therefore to use certain types of cryostats experimentally. Indeed the high resistivity Gallium arsenide is an Achilles heel for digital circuits with him.
2. Capacities and parasitic inductances
This effect is primarily concerned with the electrical connections between the chip, the cartridge and the circuit which is mounted, limiting its operating frequency. With smaller tablets reduce the capacity and inductance of them. In digital circuits bus drivers, clock generators, etc., is important to keep the impedance of the lines, and further, into the channels of radio and microwave.
Limits components
available for integrating components have certain limitations, which differ from those of their discrete counterparts.
• Resistors. Are undesirable because they needed a lot of surface. Thus only small values \u200b\u200bare used and in technology we are eliminated almost entirely.
• Capacitors. Only possible values \u200b\u200bare very low and the cost of much surface. As an example, the UA741 operational amplifier, capacitor stabilization comes to occupy a quarter of the chip.
• Rolls. Only used in RF circuits, with hybrids often. Generally not integrated.
integration density
During the manufacturing process of integrated circuits accumulate defects, so that a certain number of final circuit components do not work properly. When the chip integrates a larger number of components, these components reduce the proportion of defective functional chips. That is why memory circuits, for example, where there are millions of transistors, manufactured more than necessary, so that you can vary the final interconnection for the specified organization.
circuit design
Detail of an integrated circuit
circuit design is part of the electronic studies using different methodologies to develop an electronic circuit, which can be either analog or digital.
Depending on the number components that form the integrated circuit are talking about different scales of integration. The boundaries between different scales are fuzzy, but are called SSI (Small Scale of Integration) circuits of low complexity (some dozens of components on a single chip), MSI (Medium Scale of Integration) and LSI (Large Scale Integration) the circuits of medium and high complexity, and finally VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) circuits for extremely complex, even hundreds of millions of transistors. In the latter category fall the modern microprocessors.
SSI
SSI is an acronym for the English Small-Scale Integration (small scale integration) and refers to the first integrated circuits were developed. Meet very basic functions such as logic gates, ranging from a few transistors to a hundred of them.
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice versa, as the Apollo space programs as needed or the Minuteman missile light digital device. The first motivated and guided the development of integrated circuit technology, while the second was to conduct a mass production.
These programs purchased almost all integrated circuits from 1960 to 1963 and were responsible for the strong demand led to a decline in production prices of $ 1000 the unit (in dollars 1960) to just $ 25 per unit (in dollars of 1963).
The next step in the development of integrated circuits, which took place in the late 60's, introduced devices containing hundreds of transistors on each chip and was called MSI: Medium Scale Integration (Medium -Scale Integration).
VLSI
English Acronym Very Large Scale Integration, very large scale integration. The very large scale integration systems transistor-based circuits into integrated circuits began in 1980, as part of the semiconductor and communication technologies were being developed.
The first semiconductor chip containing only one transistor each. As manufacturing technology advanced, added more and more transistors, and consequently more and more functions were integrated into a single chip. The microprocessor is a VLSI device.
First generation computers relied on vacuum tubes. Then came the discrete semiconductors, integrated circuits followed. The first ICs contained a small number of devices such as diodes, transistors, resistors and capacitors (not induce), enabling the manufacture of logic gates on a single chip. The fourth generation (LSI) consisted of systems with at least a thousand logic gates. The natural successor to the LSI was VLSI (tens of thousands of gates in a single chip). Today, microprocessors have many millions of gates on the same chip.
pricipios By 2006, microprocessors are being marketed to 65 nm technology and is expected in the near future the advent of 45 nm.
MOS
MOS, which stands for the acronym in English (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) refers to a FET families, the type of metal oxide semiconductor (MOSFET). They are commonly used in electronics and at different rates.
CMOS
CMOS (English Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor, "Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) is a logic families used in the manufacture of integrated circuits (chips). Its main feature is the use of joint-type pMOS transistors and nMOS type configured so that, at rest, the power consumption is only due to eddy currents.
Currently, the vast majority of integrated circuits are manufactured CMOS technology. This includes microprocessors, memories, DSPs, and many other types of digital chips.
Pri t he main manufacturers
industry is fundamental components for the electronics industry which in turn is to the other industries. The significant turnover of this industry in
developed countries makes them play an important role in their economies. The following table shows a list of the leading manufacturers of electronic components. Most are multinational in the electronics manufacturing represents only a part of field performance.
CRF
Lenny Z. Perez M
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